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外文毕业论文样例十一篇

时间:2023-03-17 18:12:36

外文毕业论文

外文毕业论文例1

与本族语者相比,学习者学术论文中的动词的用法单一,说明学习者对动词知识掌握不足,例如,学习者过度使用toconclude这个不定式结构,而在本族语语料库中,conclude的不定式结构使用很少,而更多的情况下使用thechapterconcludes,Heconcludes等结构。对学术语篇中的动词知识缺乏了解,会给学习者准确表达自己的论点造成困难,因此在学术写作教学中要重视动词的教学。学习者对形容词和副词的使用也存在一些问题。Swales(1990)的研究发现学习者高频率使用一些强调副词,例如really,very,而较少使用模糊语,例如many,possible。在国内,20世纪80年代,上海交通大学就创建了学术英语语料库JDEST,语料库包括文、理、工、医院等4大类。JDEST为词表的制定和教材的编写和学术英语特征的研究提供依据。例如,杨惠中(2002)通过对从学术英语语料库JDEST和普通英语语料库LOB中随机选取的语料进行定量分析,通过对比两个语料库的词表,发现了两库中动词和名词的差异。一般英语中最常用的动词是say,名词year;学术英语中最常用的动词是use,名词是system。这些词汇频率特征是仅凭直觉很难注意到的。

教学内容从20世纪60年代开始,国外的语言教师已经开始把语料库应用语言教学。我国在语料库语言学方面的研究也越来越广泛,但是,应用于学术论文写作的实践却不多。目前毕业论文写作方面的教材关注学生的语言方面的内容偏少,往往只用少量的篇幅介绍一些语言特点;大多数的论文指导教师由于工作任务重,指导论文的时候最多帮学生修改一些比较明显的语法错误,而对一些用词不当,过度使用的语言失误无暇顾及。由于教学和教师指导方面的原因,造成了学生的毕业论文在用词,语用,篇章方面错误较多。鉴于英语专业学生的毕业论文中的语言方面的错误较多,同时缺乏语体意识,我们应该加强学生这方面的训练,那到底应该教学什么呢?语料库和语料库研究成果为我们选择教学内容提供了科学的依据。语言教师应该充分利用语料库语言学的研究成果,让学生知道哪些用法是过度使用,哪些是使用过少,哪些是口语化的语言,等等。过去的外语教学常常把词汇和语法分离开来,因为传统语法把词汇和语法分成两个范畴,但辛格莱提出的词汇语法理论认为词汇和语法同等重要,而且要优先以词汇为出发点构建语言模式及其意义。词汇和语法是不可分离的,词语通过语法形式表现,语法结构则通过词语来实现,教学中我们应从学术文章中的高频词汇的意义和学术文章有的搭配入手,不是单独的教某个动词或形容词的用法。

例如,杨惠中(2002)发现学术文章中出现频率较高的词语组合是专业性搭配,是科研人员表达专业概念、思想和活动的重要方式。不同的搭配表达不同的意义,教学中应把词语搭配作为重点教学内容,让学生了解学术文章的常用搭配。除了把已有的研究成果应用于教学,教师还应该从学习者语料库入手,分析学习者语料库中的语言搭配错误和其它不当用法,了解学习者的困难,把这些问题作为教学内容,针对学生的困难有的放矢,有效地提高论文写作的教学质量。基于语料库的练习设计练习设计的目的就是为了让学生充分利用语料库资源,通过语料检索方法了解学术文体的语言特征和语篇特征,唤起学生的语言意识,也就是有意识地把学生的注意力吸引到学术文体的语言和语篇特征上,了解学术文体的语言规则。国外的很多学者都认为意识唤起有助于二语习得。R.Ellis(1990)认为习得词汇和语法的有效方法之一就是注意词汇和语法结构,它们的意思和用法以及出现的语境。他们建议阅读学术文章时要注意词汇、语法结构,首先,学生要知道哪些词汇和语法要注意,所以,教师的任务就是指导学生,指出哪些词汇和语法需要学生注意,并让学术懂得这些词的用法。

另外如果学生注意到了错误的语法结构和词的用法,就会把错误和自己的文章做比较,并进行自我纠错。下面就如何在毕业论文写作中利用语料库举几个例子。1.搭配练习目前,我国基础阶段的英语专业教材中的搭配练习不多,学生对词的搭配学习不够重视,为了加强学生的搭配意识,在学术写作教学中要设计一些搭配练习,让学生熟悉学术词汇的搭配知识,这样在论文写作中才能尽量避免搭配错误。例如,study,research,survey,analysis是学术文章的常用的名词,conduct,carryout,make是常用的动词,而且意思相近。要求学生利用语料库检索这些动词可以和前面的哪些名词搭配,搭配出现的频率是高还是低。通过这样的练习使学生不仅了解词的搭配,还可以掌握一些近义词,在写作中不会重复使用一个词,增加了词的多样性。2.改错练习教师可以把学生的毕业论文中的错误找出来,罗列出现频率较高的错误,让学生修改错误。下面的例句都是学生的毕业论文中使用的句子。(1)ithasreceivedahighattentionfrommanyscholarsandexpertsathomeandabroad:(2)That’stosay,bothofChinesenamesandEnglishnamescanbedividedintotwomainparts:学生的语言错误包括搭配错误,语言使用不得体的问题及短语错误等。在(1)中,学生把attention当成可数名词,前面加了冠词a;(2)的问题是That’stosay一般用在口语,少用在学术文体。改错的第一步是让学生先识别错误,让学生把材料输入语料库验证,看看是否有问题,如果有问题,则利用语料库的证据,修改错误。美国当代英语语料库有一个功能,可以比较某个词或某个表达方法在各种语体中的使用频率,这些语体包括口语、小说、报纸、杂志和学术文章等。用法很简单、便捷。以上面的That’stosay为例,只要将That’stosay输入语料库的检索框,马上就可以得出它在各个语体中的使用频率。语料库数据显示That’stosay在口语中出现了46次,学术文章中仅4次,由此可以得出结论That’stosay主要用在口语中,书面语很少使用。

作者:莫秀兰 单位:桂林电子科技大学

外文毕业论文例2

一、 撰写论文的重要性

毕业论文,是大学教学的最后一个环节,是对整个大学阶段学习的回顾与总结,是学生综合能力的体现,也是对学生的一次语言及相关科学研究的一次基本训练,因此,要求学生以高度认真负责的态度对待此项工作。

做好毕业论文的指导工作是整个大学教学和教育的重要和必要内容,也是理论教学的重要组成部分。每一位教师都要以高度的社会责任感和敬业精神投入到此项工作中去,指导学生顺利完成毕业论文任务。

二、 指导资格

论文一般由讲师以上(含讲师)有科研工作经验的教师指导;

三、 论文选题的范围及时间

论文选题内容可涉及文化、文学、跨文化交际、翻译、教学法、语言学六个方面。题目在三年级上学期论文写作课教师的辅导下初步拟订,在三年级上学期末确定指导教师。

四、 论文的内容要求

(1) 论文要有一定的思想性,论点明确,论据充分,条理清晰,语言准确、规范、流畅;

(2)论文应由学生独立完成,不得抄袭;

(3)论文内容应与英语国家文化、社会等问题相关。

五、 论文的格式要求

(1) 一律用英语撰写;

(2) 长度为3500-4000字之间;

(3) 结构完整,且中、英文摘要、中英文关键词、提纲、参考书目等应符合论文写作课上所讲述的要求

(4) 初稿和定稿必须采用A4标准纸张,经电脑打印完成;

(6) 终稿必须采用的基本编辑格式应符合要求,格式具体要求参见外语系毕业论文模板。中文摘要、关键词统一用A4标准纸张,4号宋体字打印。

六、论文进度安排

(1)三年级上学期为论文准备阶段,包括资料的收集与整理、阅读文献、撰写提纲。

(2)在论文指导教师指导下,2005级英语教育专业的学生于2008年1月10日前须将论文题目确定下来,并撰写毕业论文提纲。

(3)第一稿(Rough Draft)完成时间为3月31日。

(4)第二稿完成时间为4月25日。

(5)第三稿即论文终稿完成时间为5月25日。同时按外语系论文写作模版打印成文。

七、 毕业论文的阶段及要求

论文工作主要分以下几个阶段:准备(资料的收集与整理、阅读文献、撰写提纲)、第一稿、第二稿、第三稿、定稿及答辩。

(一)准备:学生可以根据外语系论文写作范围选择研究内容,但要在教师的指导下对研究对象进行资料的收集整理和分析来确定毕业论文题目。

(二)撰写提纲:学生在指导教师的指导下分析和研究所采集的资料的基础上,撰写毕业论文提纲。同时也要求每一位指导教师在学生形成毕业论文提纲前一定要与被指导的学生进行讨论,毕业论文提纲应尽量做到全面缜密,理顺所要论述内容,避免以后反复修改。

(三)第一稿:要求学生必须严格按照指导教师审定后的毕业论文提纲进行写作,不可自行其是,随意更换主题。第一稿完成以后,指导教师主要检查学生是否按照既定的提纲和思想在写作,及时发现问题及时纠正。如学生采取不认真的态度,指导教师应对其提出严肃地批评教育,拒不接受者,指导教师有权提出相应的处理意见,或交系毕业论文工作小组处理。如果教师不认真指导,随意放学生过关,以后阶段出现的问题由该教师本人负责。

(四)第二稿:要求学生不仅要继续补充第一稿之不足,同时要求在表达上要有所提高。在接到第二稿以后,指导教师阅读后应指出存在的问题,以便学生及时改正。

(五)第三稿:要求学生在文风、文章格式、修辞等方面有所提高。指导教师要对第三稿进行全面地审阅,并提出修改意见,以保证定稿打印时所有的错误和疏漏都得到更正,错误率控制在规定范围内,即2%。同时,教师还要提醒学生在打印前再校对,以保证尽可能地将正确的版本打印出来。

(六)毕业论文答辩:毕业论文的答辩是毕业论文工作的最后阶段,要求学生予以充分的准备和重视。论文答辩前,学生们必须充分熟悉论文,答辩时,要求学生能脱稿进行5-10分钟的毕业论文内容的陈述,并流利、准确地回答答辩委员提出的问题。在答辩过程中,参加答辩的教师要对答辩人的语言技能(语音、语法、词汇、语用)、口笔头能力、论文内容和答辩的表现进行认真记录,客观公正的评分。

八、 与导师的联系

(1) 建议学生在第五学期结束之前在写作课教师辅导下初步确定论文选题方向,但第一次与导师见面的时间不得迟于第五学期指导教师排定后一周;

(2) 学生第一次与导师见面时必须准备好暂定的论文题目、主题与提纲以便讨论,否则导师有权不予指导; (3) 对无故不主动与导师联系的学生,导师有权不予指导;

(4) 对于未遵循上述要求的学生,系论文指导委员会不再另行为其安排指导教师;

九、 “指导纪录单”的填写

学生应用(英文)认真填写论文题目(需附中文题目),认真保存指导记录单,并于上交论文终稿的同时上交指导记录单。

外文毕业论文例3

我来自外语系2003级(2)班,我叫杨函祥,我的论文题目是《李阳疯狂英语与中学英语口语教学》,本篇论文是在凌红波讲师的指导完成的。在此,我十分感谢她长期以来对我的精心指导和大力帮助,同时也感谢各位评审老师从百忙之中抽出宝贵的时间事一同参与对我这篇论文的审阅并出席本次答辩,以下是本篇论文的选题缘由、目的,资料收集准备工作以及文章结构。

一、选题缘由、目的

爱好英语的人都知道,李阳,疯狂英语的创始人,以自己不懈的追求和不断努力奋斗,演绎了精彩的人生传奇。十多年来,他凭着自己成功的经验和一口地道的美式英语,在全国各地近百所高校进行疯狂讲学,掀起一股股疯狂英语的学习热潮,把中国人学习英语的激情推向了最高潮。通过自己对李阳疯狂英语的学习,的确发觉有许多有助于英语学习的优点值得借鉴,再结合自己的成长经历和实际考察,我发现贵州少数民族偏远山区中学生英语基础普遍偏差,尤其是口语表达能力比较差。基于这一情况,进行分析,我大胆地推崇李阳疯狂英语的优势,有效地进行中学英语教学辅助,并以此列提纲,进行展开。

二、资料收集准备工作

自2006年下旬选定题目后,为了完成论文,本人进行了大量的资料收集,有来自网上的论文期刊,图书馆的书目,最主要是来自于李阳疯狂英语的学习教材。在凌红波老师的指导下,经过阅读资料,拟定提纲,调研,写开题报告初稿、定稿,毕业论文初稿、修改等一系列程序,于2007年3月正式定稿。

三、论文的结构

全文总共分为五个部分,约9000字:

第一部分是引言,该部分主要结合了贵州少数民族偏远山区中学生英语基础普遍偏差,尤其是口语表达能力相对较差这一情况,提出自己的看法,主张推崇李阳英语,把李阳疯狂英语的特点和优势与中学英语口语教学有效地结合起来,从而全面提高贵州偏远山区中学生的整体英语水平。

第二部分重点介绍了李阳疯狂英语的特点及优势。其点包括以下几个方面:1、办班灵活,注重课堂互动;2、学习过程由简单到复杂,由短句到长句,由句子到篇章,朗读速度由慢到快,同时训练方式也叫为独特;3、各种场合讲话善于借助身体语言,使语言与动作相结合,更形象化;4、训练句型非正规性(Damnit!Watchyourmonth)、幽默性、中成英表、鼓励性(Nopain,nogain)等。而优势则包含六个方面:1、大声读,在读中克服羞怯;2、大声拼,在拼中学会记忆;3、大声唱,在唱中找到乐趣;4、大声说,在说中找到自信;5、重视非智力因素的培养。也就是指注重对学生学习激情的激发,而把学习英语与人生奋斗相联系起来。如:“一分耕耘,一分收获”“学习英语没有什么了不起!攻克英语,小菜一碟!”“打击我吧!迫害我吧!主我成为真正的人!”等;6、教材更符合生活实际。教学内容多取自欧美国家的实际生活的情景,而且口语强调地道,实用(如:Iseverythingundercontrol?一切都在掌握之中吗?Givemeafavor!帮我一把吧!)。

第三部分介绍了贵州地区中学生英语水平普遍偏差的原因。总共概括为以下六个方面:1、缺乏有利于外语教学的社会大环境;2、教育体制的弊端;3、现代化教学设备不齐全;4、学生自身的内在因素;5、教师自身素质的影响和教学传统观念的干扰;6、地方方言的干扰等。也正是以上一系列不利因素的存在,使得贵州落后山区中学英语教学成效较低。

外文毕业论文例4

中图分类号:TP315 文献标志码:B 文章编号:1673-8454(2015)09-0079-04

毕业论文是高等院校学生为完成学业在教师指导下运用所学知识,就所学专业某一现象或问题进行系统研究后对成果加以系统表述形成的具备一定理论和实践价值的学术文本。它是我国高等院校教学计划中重要的实践环节,是培养大学生基本科研和实践工作能力的重要手段。近年来,随着教育教学改革的深入,毕业论文评价工作越来越受各院校和教育界学者重视。笔者对国内研究的检索表明:1998年至2014年,研究论文数量呈明显上升趋势。[1]然而,与外语专业毕业论文评价有关的论文仅有两篇,简要谈及了英语专业毕业论文的重要性及评价原则。加强毕业论文评价工作的科学化是我国《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》的要求,也是国际高教质量保障体系的发展趋势。鉴于此,笔者拟从该项工作的现状出发,基于其特征设计一套科学的综合评价体系,希望推动该项工作的科学性、标准化和公正性。

一、我国高等院校外语专业毕业论文评价工作的现状与不足

1.调查发现

笔者对国内30所各层次外语专业院系[2]的毕业论文评价工作进行调查后发现:

(1)大多数院系都采用了科学的工作流程:指导教师评阅―交叉审阅―答辩评审―综合评分。

(2)大多数院系都采用百分制量化评价方式。

(3)总体上,学校层次越高,工作过程也越科学越严谨。

此外,现代信息技术在该项工作中得到了良好应用,大大提高了工作效率,顺应了当代社会对低碳环保的追求。

2.缺陷和不足

(1)忽视评价工作的模糊性

标准的笼统性和评价的主观模糊性导致作为主观决策过程的毕业论文评价本质上不能做到精确量化,但绝大多数高校均要求参评教师给出精确分数,这与评价工作的模糊性相背。

(2)评价维度不全面、指标不完善、权重分配过于主观

虽然多数院系采用了多元评价,涉及语言表达、论证过程、格式规范、答辩表现等,但诸如选题价值、外文资料翻译、开题答辩、工作态度等与论文质量密切相关的指标都未涵盖。评价成绩主要由指导教师、交叉审阅教师和答辩小组评分等三或两部分成绩按主观比例如4:3:3构成,甚至仅由指导教师或答辩小组判定论文成绩。

(3)缺乏过度主观评价防控设计

评价工作固有的主观性加上师生之间因种种原因产生的人情关系容易导致教师对评价对象作出过度评价,导致评价结果失去公正性。遗憾的是没有院系在评价步骤中加入针对此缺陷的防控设计。

二、外语专业毕业论文评价工作的基本特点、原则与方法选择

1.基本特点

(1)主观模糊性

毕业论文评价工作本质上属于主观决策过程,它要求评价主体对评价对象作出尽量客观公正的评价,但评价标准及过程固有的模糊性导致评价主体无法作出精确的量化评价。此外,作为群组决策,不同评价主体的心理标准难免存在差异,加重了评价的主观模糊性。

(2)系统综合性、指标及权重差异性

评价工作是一项综合的系统工程,必须尽可能涵盖各相关评价维度。就某一维度来讲,指标设计也必须具备科学性、差异性和明确性,方可让评价主体有章可循。此外,各指标贡献率并不相同,必须尽可能赋予合理权重。

(3)评价结果量化要求

尽管评价工作具有不可避免的模糊性,但为了确定毕业论文的优秀率和合格率,绝大多数院系均要求为评价对象打出百分制分数。因此,在进行系统设计时必须将模糊定性操作转化为精确的定量操作。

(4)严肃性和公正性

毕业论文评价是对学生四年学业能力的终极评定,不仅关乎学生能否获得毕业证和学位证等切身利益,而且对我国高等教育质量监控与发展也有重要影响,必须确保严肃性和公正性。

2.基本原则

(1)专业性原则

外语专业毕业论文不同于理工科论文,如表达符号为外语、更注重逻辑推理与系统建构等。其评价体系构建必须考虑专业特殊性来设计评价指标并为其分配合理权重。

(2)静态与动态评价相结合

毕业论文写作是一个阶段性动态过程,评价体系既要涉及对论文的静态评价还应包括对工作过程的动态监控性评价,即做到静态与动态评价相结合。

(3)公平公正原则

鉴于评价工作的主观模糊性及评价主体可能作出的过度主观性评价。评价步骤设计必须想方设法减少种种主观随意性,尽最大努力保证评价结果严肃公正。

(4)可操作性原则

指标设计必须具备可测性、精细性和完整性,避免不必要的要素交叉。同时,具备经济可操作性和信息化优势,以充分发挥现代信息技术的效率优势和绿色环保等特性。

3.方法选择

据此,笔者整合了层次分析法和模糊综合评价法来设计外语专业毕业论文评价体系,并加入了过度主观评价防控设计。层次分析法(AHP)是美国著名运筹学家塞蒂于上世纪70年代创立的一种定性和定量分析相结合的决策方法。该方法充分利用专家级决策人员的丰富经验和精准判断力根据问题性质和决策目标将问题分解为不同的结构要素,并按照要素间隶属关系和相互作用将因素按不同层次聚合为一个递阶模型,从而将决策问题归结为指标层对目标层的相对权重值定量化。模糊综合评价法(FCE)是一种基于模糊数学的综合评价方法。该方法根据模糊数学的隶属度理论,整合主观逻辑分析与客观精确运算把定性评价转化为定量评价,从而对受多种因素制约的现象做出评价。前者能有效避免毕业论文评价体系设计不够全面、指标权重分配过于主观的缺陷;后者可以将主观模糊评价转化为量化评价。整合两种方法系统性强和结果明晰等特点可有效解决外语专业毕业论文评价过程中存在的问题。

三、外语专业毕业论文评价系统的步骤设计

1.建立评价递阶模型

该模型由目标层、准则层和指标层组成。目标层是对评价对象题的概述,准则层是隶属于目标层的具体描述,指标层则是各准则层下属的细化评价内容。

2.建立专家判断矩阵并检验其随机一致性

(1)根据递阶模型相邻层次间的隶属关系,请K位行业专家依据两两比较法对各层指标的重要性比较标度进行打分,构造出判断矩阵。设矩阵有i个元素,则判断矩阵为Pk(1)。

(2)检验各矩阵的随机一致性。由于判断矩阵易受个体认知模糊性及评价系统复杂性的影响,必须对各矩阵的随机一致性进行检验。计算过程如下:首先计算各矩阵的最大特征值λmax。鉴于该计算过程比较繁琐,此处建议直接在Matlab7.1中输入各矩阵Pk后,调用最大特征值计算函数max(eig(Pk))即可获得各矩阵的最大特征值;计算各矩阵的一致性指标CI=(λmax-n)/(n-1);查询平均随机一致性指标对应的RI值,计算各矩阵的随机一致性指标CR=CI/RI。当n=1或2时,判断矩阵具有完全一致性;当n>2时,若CR

(3)计算各指标权重。计算指标权重的方法有和积法、最小对数二乘法等方法。合积法计算过程如下:归一化各矩阵[1],将归化矩阵按行相加[2]后再次进行归一化处理[3],计算各个专家的权重[4],组成专家权重矩阵后将之归一化[5],然后计算各指标的最终权重[6]。

3.设定模糊评语集及对应评语分值向量集

设评语等级集E={e1, e2, …, eh}, h为评语等级子集的个数。与E相对应,令评语分值向量集F=[f1, f2, …, fh]。

4.构造模糊评价矩阵并检验其离散程度

请R位评价主体按递阶模型为评价对象打分构造出各指标的模糊评价矩阵Ri(2),由于评价结果可能受评价主体特定情感因素的影响,因此必须检验Ri的离散程度。令E={5, 4, 3, 2, 1}。依次计算R位评价主体对各指标评价结果的离散系数CVi(i=1, 2, …, n)[7]及其平均值AVG(CVi)。经过计算,在评价主体少于10人时,若AVG(CVi)>0.15,则说明各评价主体对该指标层的评价存在不公正极值。计算各分值与均值之间的标准差,标准差最大者即为极值,更换该评价主体重新评价,直至评价结果满足要求。

5.计算各准则层的评价结果向量

若模糊评价矩阵Ri通过离散程度检验则将之归一化后计算评价对象在各准则层的评价结果向量Ai[8]。

6.计算评价对象的最终模糊评价结果

综合各准则层的评价结果向量Ai,建立针对目标层的模糊评价矩阵A(3),然后利用准则层的权重矩阵计算评价对象的最终模糊评价结果G[9]。结合不同评语分值向量集F计算评价对象的最终精确得分S[10]。本段提到的矩阵和计算公式如表1所示。

四、应用实例

1.构建评价递阶模型

根据层次分析法原理,笔者整合了国内已有毕业论文评价体系研究成果和校内外专家和专任教师的意见,构建出如下外语专业毕业论文综合评价递阶模型,如表2所示。

2.建立专家判断矩阵并检验其随机一致性

请校内外8位专家和教师对各层指标打分构造出判断矩阵,因篇幅所限,笔者仅对准则层U5对应的矩阵Pk=8为例演示计算过程,如表3所示。

运用Matlab7.1计算各判断矩阵的最大特征值,依次为{3.0092, 3, 3, 3.0092, 3.0092, 3, 3.0037, 3}。计算P1的一致性指标CI=(3.009200-3)/2=0.0046,各专家矩阵的λmax依次为{0.0046, 0, 0, 0.0046, 0.0046, 0, 0.0019, 0};据公式CR=CI/RI,各专家判断矩阵的随机一致性指标值依次为{0.0079, 0, 0, 0.0079, 0.0079, 0, 0.0032, 0},均小于0.1,通过检验。

3.计算各指标的最终权重

本节以第一位专家的判断矩阵为例演示计算过程。首先归一化P1;按行相加得M1=[0.2678 1.7608 0.9713]T;再次归一化得1=[0.0893 0.5869 0.3238]T。其他各专家的打分归化矩阵依次为:2=[0.1111 0.2222 0.6667]T、3=[0.1667 0.1667 0.6667]T、4=[0.1638 0.2973 0.5390]T、5=[0.1066 0.1935 0.6999]T、6=[0.1000 0.3000 0.6000]T、7=[0.1299 0.1381 0.732]T、8=[0.1429 0.1429 0.7143]T。计算第一位专家最终权重W1=1/(1+10×CR1)=1/(1+10×0.007931)=0.9265;其他专家的最终权重依次为{1, 1, 0.9265, 0.9265, 1, 0.9691};归一化各专家权重组成矩阵k=[0.1196 0.1291 0.1291 0.1196 0.1196 0.1291 0.1251 0.1291]T;计算U5各指标的权重值为:W1=k*k=[0.126441, 0.253472, 0.620088]。其他指标的计算结果请见表2。

4.模糊评价过程示例

下面说明运用该递阶模型对某位英语专业学生毕业论文进行模糊评价的过程。因篇幅所限,此处以准则层U1为例演示计算过程。

(1)设定模糊评语集和对应评语向量集为:V={e1, e2, e3, e4, e5}={优,良,中,合格,差},F=[f1, f2, f3, f4, f5]=[5, 4, 3, 2, 1](五分制)或[100, 85, 70, 60, 40](百分制)。

(2)由3位老师对U1各指标按V打分,构造出隶属度矩阵R1;计算该矩阵离散程度AVG(CVi)=0.0787

[11]

(3)归一化矩阵R1,计算该论文在准则层U1下的评价结果为:

A1=WT

1×R1=[0.3223, 0.2239, 0.2749, 0.0977, 0.0308, 0.0505]T×R1=[0.2858, 0.4563, 0.2579, 0, 0]

A1可解读为:所有评价主体认为准则层U1为优的概率为28.58%、良为45.63%、中为25.79%、及格和差的概率为0%。其他各层评价结果依次为:A2=[0, 0.6667, 0.3333, 0, 0]; A3=[0.1751, 0.4075, 0.4174, 0, 0]; A4=[0.0327, 0.2925, 0.6748, 0, 0]; A5=[0.0845, 0.5822, 0, 0, 0]。

(4)构造总目标下模糊关系矩阵A,利用准则层权重计算最终模糊评价结果G。

[12]

结合不同评语分值向量集F计算评价对象的等级分或百分制分数:

S=GT×FT=[0.1336, 0.4144, 0.4373, 0, 0]T×[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]T=3.637133≈3.64;S∈[3.5, 4.5)。

S=GT×FT=[0.1336, 0.4144, 0.4373, 0, 0]T×[100, 85, 70, 60, 40]T=79.187≈79.2。

必须指出,运用本法求得的论文最低分为1或40,即本法对质量更差的论文不具备区分度,但这并不影响其适用性,不达标的论文必须退回修改,对学位证发放不会产生决定性影响。

五、结束语

本文从我国高等院校外语专业毕业论文评价工作的现状出发,讨论了该项工作的基本特征和工作原则,在整合AHP和FCE优势的基础上,设计了一种具备良好操作性的评价体系。该体系能有效地解决该项工作中存在的问题,调动学生毕业论文写作的积极性,进一步提高该项工作的科学性、标准化和公正性。此外,鉴于本系统计算过程的数学规律性极强,可以设计基于大型数据库的网络系统,实现全部计算过程的自动化,更好地提高工作效率,为创建节约型社会贡献一份力量。

参考文献:

[1]高等学校外语专业教学指导委员会英语组编.高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2000.

外文毕业论文例5

合理性的分析

从公共管理的角度来讲,电子政务是一项面向社会、造福社会的系统工程,是一种公共责任,理应动员全社会力量来共同完成。具体来说,近几十年来信息技术的发展日新月异,新技术、新产品、新方案层出不穷,而大部分政府部门又缺乏精通信息技术的专业人员和信息系统建设的实践经验,有些时候显得无所适从。随着电子政务建设的深入开展,系统建设规模更大、范围更广、技术更新,对工作人员的要求也从仅要求技术背景向既懂技术又懂管理的复合型人才过渡,相应的政府部门更显得难以判断和选择,造成了很多问题。

采取外包的设想

电子政务建设应充分发挥市场作用,既实现政府管理水平的跨越式发展,又带动产业,发挥市场对资源的高效配置作用。大力推行市场化,实现不同角色的精确定位:出资方角色应通过招标确定,赋予特许经营或优惠政策;系统集成方、运行维护方、监理方三个角色应通过公开招投标参与系统建设;政府是制定标准、支付运行维护费或使用费的使用方角色、进行监管的监管方角色。政府部门最好不承担出资和建设运维等角色,为了有效制衡,出资人和系统承建者最好是不同主体。

新建系统应优先选择企业出资建设方式,提高效率,保证质量。

应注意的问题

构建“政府搭台企业唱戏”的局面,首先要求政府理清思路,明白电子政务的发展方向以及一步一步的战略部署,否则在和企业的合作中只能跟着企业的思维方式去行动,把网络建设起来,把软件买走,能不能用得上、用得好则是这以后的事情,企业这么做是符合经济学原理的,经营行为最终是为了赚取最大的利润,而政府必须在其中起到掌舵者和导航仪的作用,也只有这样才能真正赢得企业的尊重。为了做好电子政务,我们需要一个长期的合作伙伴。这就是认真挑选IT承包商的重要意义。

外包的模式

实行总体统筹负责制,对包括电子政务在内的重大信息化应用工程,在招标的基础上,按市场机制承包给企业来建设、运营,政府负责支付运营维护费用,其他费用在资源、政策外包基础上支持企业自筹。这一做法有利于政府集中精力做好规划、提出需求,加强政策贯彻,统一宏观管理、监控和服务;避免建立庞大的专业队伍;把技术工作交给专业化公司,把政府从具体的技术工作中解脱出来,使其集中于城市的管理和服务,也有利于资源共享,降低成本。

外文毕业论文例6

 

19世纪中叶,西方近代地质学传入中国,少数外国地质学者开启了我国地质调查工作,中国却没有设立自己的地质机构。1912年1月,孙中山在南京组建临时政府,当时在实业部矿务司下设立了地质科,成为我国第一个正式的地质工作机构。1913年2月,实业部矿务司地质科改为工商部矿务司地质科,同年6月,地质科改为地质调查所和地质研究所毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,职责是既培养地质人才、研究人员和学生,又从事地质调查工作。

1922年1月27日,中国地质工作者成立中国地质学会,1923年我国第一个地方办的地质调查所――河南省地质调查所成立。以后,中央的地质调查所和地质研究所又曾隶属实业部、经济部。1928年地质研究所归入中央研究院。抗日战争期间,1940年前后,经济部设西南矿产勘测处和矿冶研究所。湖南、福建、广东、广西、江西、四川、西康等也先后设立了省级地质调查所。

以上是解放前,我国地质工作的概况和机构设置情况免费论文下载论文的格式。这时中国的矿产勘查取得了一定的成果,但总体上仍较薄弱。由于旧中国的经济社会发展水平低下,地质工作和矿产勘查工作发展缓慢,到新中国成立前37年,累计钻探进尺仅17万米,探明储量的矿产只有18种。另外,解放前地质工作者也发现了一些矿产基地,特别是延安的延长石油的勘查与开发,边区政府作出了重要贡献。尽管矿产勘查工作取得了一定成绩,但由于旧中国政治、经济、社会落后,矿产勘查工作受到了约束。

相比而言,国外的地质矿产勘查与开发工作取得了飞速的发展,各项事业成效显著毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,而且法律法规也较为完善、成熟。由于地质矿产勘查与开发行业是发现和利用位于地表或地下的石油天然气等递耗性矿产资源的行业,该行业具有高风险、长跨度、资金密集、会计业务复杂等特点,这些特点主要体现在其上游活动,即勘探、开发、开采直到矿区废弃的活动。而其中的会计业务作为行业的基础除要考虑会计的专业性外,还应考虑地质矿产的高风险、资源稀缺性、收益波动性、开发专业性和行业高危性等特点。因此该行业的会计业务便显得尤为重要。鉴于矿产资源勘查开发行业的上述特点,国际上许多国家都制定了各自的石油天然气等采掘行业会计准则或相关指南。

美国是国际上最早对地质矿产勘查开发中会计问题进行研究的国家,其研究的成果也较为成熟、系统和深入,相关会计准则的制定也最早、较完善,对世界其他国家和地区的地质勘探行为中会计制度的制定以及相关准则的产生,有巨大而深远的影响作用。

早在20世纪初,美国就开始了对地质矿产勘查开发行业会计问题进行研究,但当时的研究范围还仅限于流体矿产资源开发会计――石油天然气会计的一些具体操作性问题,其研究的主要内容是以历史成本为基础的成果法 (Successfuleffortsmethod,简称SE)和完全成本法 (FullCostmethod,简称FC)的运用方式和使用范围的选择。60年代末,美国注册会计师协会(AICPA)了第11号《会计研究报告》(ARSNO.11),建议基本上支持成果法。70年代初,AICPA下属的会计原则委员会(APB)了题为“石油工业会计报告实务”的专题报告,也基本支持成果法。直到以FASB于1975年的第9号财务会计准则公告(StatementsofFinaneialAeeountingstandards,简称SFAS)《所得税会计―石油和天然气生产公司(对APB第11号和第23号意见书的修正)》为标志。美国财务会计准则委员会(FASB)于20世纪70至90年代毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,先后了六份与石油天然气会计有关的《财务会计公告》,其中最重要的两份准则,一是1977年12月的 SFASNo.19“石油天然气生产公司的财务会计与报告”,二是1982年的SFASNO.69“有关石油天然气生产活动的揭示”。

澳大利亚没有单独的地质勘探会计准则,但存在着管制采掘行业和石油天然气行业的联合准则。1989年澳大利亚会计准则理事会(AustralianAeeountingstandardsBoard)了《澳大利亚会计准则第1022号――采掘行业会计》和《澳大利亚会计准则第7号――采掘行业会计》,都称为《采掘行业会计》,且在技术上十分一致,不过,前者应用于公司企业,而后者应用于非公司报告主体。其主要涉及勘探开发成本的确认、计量、废弃成本的处置、摊销和收入确认等免费论文下载论文的格式。2004年,澳大利亚会计准则理事会为了使其准则与IFRS6趋同,在认SBIFRS6的同时也了与IFRS6对等的《澳大利亚会计准则第6号――矿产资源的勘探与评价》,取代了《澳大利亚会计准则第1022号――采掘行业会计》,但保留了澳大利亚采掘行业会计原有的一些特色。

加拿大没有一个独立的地质勘探行业上游活动会计准则。但是,1988年加拿大特许会计师协会(CICA)了一份可以看作是地质勘探行业会计指南的研究报告――《小型矿业公司(JimiorMiningcompanies)的财务会计与报告》,论述了小型矿业公司的财务会计与报告问题,主要涉及了矿产的资源勘探,而较少涉及开发。研究报告探讨了勘探和开发成本的资本化问题、矿产权益部分销售的利得和损失的确认问题、矿产权益的取得、矿产权益的放弃和销售、披露以及管理费用和股份发行成本等。1990年加拿大特许会计师协会(CICA)了名为“石油天然气行业完全成本会计”,主要涉及完全成本法在石油天然气勘探、开发和开采活动中的应用以及“油气资产”折旧、减值和转让利得、损失的确认等问题。

英国的石油天然气会计实务尽管受美国的影响较大,但亦有自己的特色。2001年6月7日由OLAC了一个实务建议公告《石油天然气勘探、开发、生产和废弃活动会计》毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,该公告取代了1956年至1995年间的四个相关建议实务公告,目的是在英国一般公认会计原则框架下增进从事石油天然气勘探、开发与生产活动的公司财务报告的一致性。公告认为,全部成本法和成果法都是可接受的方法,并规定了两种方法下费用资本化的原则和上限减值测试的要求,还对风险分担协议、石油天然气开采活动、清理与废弃和其他权益变动等方面的会计处理,以及财务报表列报和披露作了规定。

从以上发达国家地质勘探行业中会计制度的制定,可以为我国相关行业会计制度提供借鉴,制定一份统一的地质矿产勘查开发行业会计准则是有必要的。该准则可采用历史成本原则下的成果法对勘探成本进行会计处理,而不是以估计的矿产资源资产价值为基础;充分考虑生产前成本的费用化或资本化;与矿物相关的成本的资本化与折旧;管理成本在不同经营阶段的归属;矿产资源资产资本化成本的折旧应使用产量单位法计提;矿产资源资产资本化成本的减值测试;矿物成本的确认与计量;动态销售收入如何确认等因素,充分考虑地质矿产行业的专业因素和行业经济因素,为行业发展提供科学、合理的会计准则。

参考文献:

[1]程江涛,司竹君.国土资源大调查中的地质调查项目的预算编制与会计核算.山东地质,2003(1).

[2]王忠海.采掘行业上游活动会计准则问题研究.东北林业大学学位论文.2007.

[3]董杰.中国工业遗产保护及其非物质成分分析.内蒙古师范大学学报(自然科学版),2009(4).

外文毕业论文例7

一、会计信息外部性的产生原因

透过纷繁复杂的经济现象不难发现,会计信息本质上是企业的一项经济资源,能够为特定实体提供未来的经济利益,从而具有私人物品的属性。既然如此,为什么又认为会计信息是一项公共物品,会带来外部性呢?

根据经济学原理,判定一种产品是否为公共物品,主要看其是否具有非竞争性和非排他性。企业向社会公开披露的会计信息具有这两方面的特性,没有向社会公开披露的会计信息则不具备这两方面的特性。因为在企业向社会公开披露其会计信息的过程中,会计信息属性发生了变化,即由“私人物品”转化为“公共物品”,从而不可避免地产生了外部性。而我们现在所指的会计信息,都是由股份有限公司通过招股说明书、上市公告书、定期报告、临时报告以及其他披露文件,向广大投资者、债权人以及其他信息使用者披露的有关公司财务状况、经营成果和现金流量等的信息。会计信息一旦被公司管理当局披露,成为一项公共物品后,任何个人对它的分享或消费,都不会导致信息披露成本的增长,是为非竞争性;要排除其他人对这一公共物品的消费或分享是不可能的,是为非排他性。

二、会计信息外部性的表现形式

会计信息的外部性可分为正外部性(积极的)和负外部性(消极的)两类,其划分取决于个人是否无偿地享有了额外的收益,或者承受了不是他所导致的额外成本。会计信息的正外部性。会计信息的提供者是企业,成本为私人成本(企业付出),而效益却是社会效益,其结果必然引起会计信息被外部使用者无偿使用而导致产权的外溢,产生正外部性。对会计信息的需求方即信息使用者来说,会计信息的披露或供给是必要的。但是,会计信息的生成和披露需要成本,按照“谁受益,谁分担”的配比原则,理论上这些成本应由全体受益者共同分担;而实际上,会计信息一旦披露出来,根本不能阻止和排除那些没有分担成本的信息使用者对它进行消费。这就产生了公共物品的“搭便车”问题。

“搭便车”问题的存在使得会计信息供给不足。根据上述分析,会计信息的这种外部性属于积极的、有利的外部性。虽然从全社会、短期的角度来看,这是有益的,但对于理性的企业来讲,这无疑是有害的。对企业而言,会计信息生成和披露的成本效益之间是不对等的。企业不能从会计信息的提供中充分补偿所消耗的信息生成成本,导致了会计信息的私人价值和社会价值的对立。这种会计信息提供过程中产生的外部性必然引发企业的理,即减少成本付出,降低会计信息质量,降低企业提供会计信息的热情和为保证会计信息质量而付出的努力程度。

会计信息的负外部性。虽然正外部性确实存在,但是考虑到理性经济人的自利特点,外部性更多的表现为负外部性。下面从管理当局、投资者、债权人三方面来探讨会计信息负外部性的表现。

由于委托关系下必然衍生的委托方和方目标函数的不一致性,管理当局往往不是从委托方角度进行考虑,而是从私人角度来衡量会计信息的生成和提供,由此决定提供会计信息的质量。其主要表现形式有:一是故意的负外部性,即管理当局推波助澜、尽情掩饰,从而以牺牲投资者的利益为代价追逐个人的短期效用;二是非故意的负外部性,即管理当局在提供信息的过程中不可避免地带有主观偏见和主观判断,从而生成或过滤掉一些与投资者需求不一致的信息,同样也会影响投资者对信息的使用效果,带来外部性。

同样,由于投资者进行决策需要会计信息,主观上也会对会计信息的质量提出要求,可能出现管理当局按照部分投资者的要求提供会计信息但却导致企业整体和其他投资者受损的情况,或出现信息提供不足或提供过量的情况。

当企业向债权人借入资金后,两者也形成一种委托关系,其目标函数也不一致。债权人作为理性经济人,追求利益最大化和防止自己的利益被侵害,会采取诸多措施要求企业提供与还债能力有关的尽可能详细的会计信息。因此,别的投资者和报表使用者不得不根据自己的需要对提供的会计信息重新进行分解、组合。这不仅承担额外的成本,还要花费更多的交易费用。这些就是债务人强加在会计报表其他使用者身上的负外部性。

三、会计信息外部性的内部化过程

既然会计信息供求过程存在着外部性,那么外部性就应该被内部化。若能通过对会计信息产权进行界定或进行恰当安排,使会计信息外部性的影响在很大程度上由企业的利益相关者共同承担,就可形成会计信息外部性的内部化。

但是,由于以下几种因素的制约,会计信息外部性的内部化过程也不是那么容易,仍然存在着无法界定产权的公共领域,导致内部化的无效性。

在企业所有权界定的前提下,即使利益相关者形成了一个利益集团,但不同的利益相关者存在着个人理性的限制。他们在事前预期到高昂的交易费用后,往往不再希望进行会计信息的博弈和界定,而只希望“搭便车”。因此,理性超过了效率,利益集团根本无法形成,产权界定成了一句空话,会计信息的外部性无法得到降低和消除。

会计信息的产权划分也可能存在不合理的因素。所谓会计信息外部性的内部化,就是报表的各方使用者通过博弈来对会计信息进行产权的界定,也就是分配。但是,由于信息的不对称,或者方法、能力的差异,各方使用者可能得到的是与自己要求和愿望不相符的产权。会计信息的各项权利不能分配给最能有效运用它们的利益相关者,也不能促使利益相关者之间形成一种激励,维持一种有利于经济高效运转的分配格局。这样不仅无法消除外部性,还可能适得其反。

四、会计信息外部性内部化的补充和矫正

从以上分析可以看出,只有在交易费用为零或极低以及信息对称这两个假设成立的情况下,才可以形成真正的会计信息外部性内部化,而当这两个假设不成立时,就必须寻求新的途径和方法来克服这种产权界定带来的无效状态。

外文毕业论文例8

侯维瑞 现代英国小说史 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1986

胡经之,王岳川主编 文艺学美学法论 北京:北京出版社,1994

黄晋凯主编 荒诞派戏剧 北京:中国人民大学出版社,1996

霍夫曼 佛洛伊德主义与文学思想 王宁译 北京:三联书店,1987

拉曼 塞尔顿编 文学批评理论 刘象愚,陈永国等译 北京:北京大学出版社,2000

霍纳 韦勒克 近代文学批评史(第4卷)上海:上海译文出版社,1997

李维屏 英美现代主义文学概观 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1998

柳鸣九编选 新小说派研究 北京中国社会科学出版社,1986

吕同六主编 20世纪世界小说理论经典 北京:华夏出版社,1995

罗伯特 斯皮勒 美国文学的周期——历史评论专集 王长荣译 上海:上海外语出版社,1990

罗德 霍顿 美国文学思想背景 房炜等译 北京人民出版社,1991

梅 佛里德曼 意识流,文学手法研究 上海:华东师范大学出版社,1992

外文毕业论文例9

2.1 Current situation of company website translation 2

2.2 Samples of famous foreign company website 3

2.3 Features of company website translation 4

3. The skopos theory and company website translation 6

3.1 Introduction of Skopos theory 6

3.2 The wrong types of translation from the perspective of Skopos 8

   3.2.1 Functional translation errors 8

   3.2.2 Liguistic translation errors 9

   3.2.3 Cultural translation errors 10

4. Analyses of website translation of foreign trade company in Zhejiang province 13

4.1 Functional translation errors 13

   4.1.1 Problem of length 13

   4.1.2 Problem rooted from different thought pattern 15

4.2 Liguistic translation errors 16

   4.2.1 Spelling errors 16

   4.2.2 Improper use of punctuation 17

   4.2.3 Incorrect word translation 17

   4.2.4 Illogical arrangment 18

4.3 Cultural translation errors 19

5. Conclusion 20

Acknowledgements 21

References 22

1.Introduction

Thanks to the ongoing economic reform and opening-up and the irresistible trend of globalization, China’s communication with the world has been intensified in recent years. Though almost every company which deal with the foreign trade owns his English version website, the overall situation of the C-E translation of Chinese company website is far from satisfactory that leave a lot of work to do. For the present, most of the work are based on the rule of skopos theory which we will investigate later.

And with the popularity and applications of the Internet, the company website plays an increasing important role in foreign exchange, outreach, and the absorb foreign capital[2]. Although nowadays most domestic enterprises have set up their own websites and e-commerce platform, many export-oriented enterprises is established in English, the site has become a propaganda of the enterprise, an effective channel to promote company products. However, there is no difficulty in finding errors comparing the domestic foreign trade company website to the foreign company website. Some mistakes are even too much to bear. In recent years, there appears a large number of discussion on website translation, start from Skopos basis direction, and have a lot of research fruits on the problem of company website mistranslation. But for the relatively small corporate company website translation, it had not been given sufficient attention and standardized management, error-prone web site translation directly affect a company’s image.

2. Current situation and features of company website translation

In the world today, global and regional cooperation is in full swing and countries are increasingly interdependent. Company website provide a quick and convenient access to the general understanding of what a Chinese company is like, thus serving as bridges that enable business people from different countries with different cultural backgrounds to have a better understanding of each other. In fact, as a specialized and important area of translation, the translation of company profiles has its own features and particular communicative functions which deserve an in-depth and systematic study.

2.1 Current situation of company website translation

Foreign propaganda in the business text, Chinese text use more modifiers which using rhyme, parallelism, words with other parties type the text in order to increase the beauty, attract potential customers and clients. Many translators often find it difficult, even if be translated, also bite the bullet and let the readers of English-speaking find it difficult to understand. Company’s publicity text translation is accurate for the purpose of translation about business, product-related information. So prominent is the informational translation, first principle focus on the information, and others such as style, rhetoric and so on is secondary to bit. If translate directly, the text will cause a pile, information duplication, not meet the English language of expression. On the basis of Skopos principles, the translator should cut the original text appropriately in order for information receiver better understanding the text.

Different from other text types, a company profile is a special kind of text with particular purposes and functions. The translation purpose of company profiles is to enable more foreigners to know more about Chinese companies, thus achieving international recognition and establishing the credibility of the company and its products. In order to achieve these purposes and functions, more attention should be paid to target readers who have different cultural backgrounds in the company profile translation. According to skopostheorie, a translation action is determined by its Skopos and the end justifies the means. That means the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Therefore, in the C-E translation of company profiles, translators should adhere to Skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule and it is applicable for them to adopt a TT-oriented or reader-centered translation strategy.

However, many translators in this field tend to neglect the translation purpose of company profiles. As a result, linguistic and cultural problems still exist and obstruct the achievement of the Skopos of company profiles. Enlightened by the functionalist approach, the thesis also conducts a comprehensive survey as to the readability and acceptability of the target text[6]. It is found that foreign people do not respond positively to the English translation of Chinese company profiles. These problems or errors adversely affect the quality of translation. Primarily under the guidance of the functionalist skopostheorie, the thesis puts forward a set of guiding principles for the C-E translation of company profiles, that is, idiomatic, comprehensible, and acceptable. By analyzing authentic examples, the study also justifies someappropriate strategies such as addition, abridgement and restructuring. A conclusion can be drawn that it is feasible to guide the C-E translation of company profiles in the light of the functionalist approach, particularly skopostheorie. In the translation process, the translator is expected to bear in mind the intended function of the target text and produce a version that is comprehensible and acceptable to the target reader. Due to great linguistic and cultural differences, the translation process usually involves considerable adjustments or adaptations of the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text.

Hopefully, the principles and strategies proposed in this study would be of some value to the C-E translation of company profiles as well as other public materials.

2.2 Samples of famous foreign website

There are a lot of famous company on the list of top 500 in the world, after searching for their company, not difficult in finding a lot of features in common about their web page design. The followings are classic samples.

Example[1]: In 1886, Coca-Cola® brought refreshment to patrons of a small Atlanta pharmacy. Now well into its second century, the Company's goal is to provide magic every time someone drinks one of its more than 400 brands. Coca-Cola has fans from Boston to Budapest to Bahrain, drinking brands such as Ambasa, Vegitabeta and Frescolita. In the remotest comers of the globe, you can still find Coca-Cola.

Coca-Cola is committed to local markets, paying attention to what people from different cultures and backgrounds like to drink, and where and how they want to drink it. With its bottling partners, the Company reaches out to the local communities it serves, believing that Coca-Cola exists to benefit and refresh everyone it touches.

(heritage.coca-cola.com/)

Example[2]: Software is a leading online portal for software products, with free downloads and expert software reviews to help you make an informed choice. We list thousands of discounted software products with prices that are almost always the lowest available in the country. We also list a huge selection of free downloads so you can try software free before you decide to buy.

The Software.com store features the the software industry’s leading publishers, including Microsoft, Intuit, Symantec, Adobe, Nuance and hundreds of others. Our software store provides users with rich resources including thousands of user reviews, articles, and product comparison charts.

    Software.com employs a team of industry experts with over 40 years of combined experience in online software distribution. Our goal is to bring you the best range of world-leading software, at the best prices, with rich reviews and product information so you can choose the software that is right for you. (software.com/about/)

 As we can see from these samples, the foreign company websites are more functional and focus more on introdu cing products, and the purpose are much stronger and prominent. This is exactly what our company website is lack of, for we always put more words in describing company history and prior tradition, but lack of products introduction and special users attraction.

2.3 Features of company website translation   

First of all, company website translation profile depends more on the skopos rules.  Different from other text types, a company website profile is a special kind of text with particular purposes and functions. The translation purpose of company website profiles is to enable more foreigners to know more about Chinese companies, thus achieving international recognition and establishing the credibility of the company and its products. In order to achieve these purposes and functions, more attention should be paid to target readers who have different cultural backgrounds in the company profile translation. According to skopostheorie, a translation action is determined by its Skopos and the end justifies the means. That means the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Therefore, in the C-E translation of company profiles, translators should adhere to Skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule and it is applicable for them to adopt a TT-oriented or reader-centered translation strategy.

Secondly, primarily under the guidance of the functionalist Skopostheorie, the thesis puts forward a set of guiding principles for the C-E translation of company profiles, that is, idiomatic, comprehensible, and acceptable. By analysis authentic examples, the study also justifies some appropriate strategies such as addition, abridgement and restructuring. A conclusion can be drawn that it is feasible to guide the C-E translation of company profiles in the light of the functionalist approach, particularly skopostheorie. In the translation process, the translator is expected to bear in mind the intended function of the target text and produce a version that is comprehensible and acceptable to the target reader. Due to great linguistic and cultural differences, the translation process usually involves considerable adjustments or adaptations of the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text.

Hopefully, the principles and strategies proposed in this study would be of some value to the C-E translation of company profiles as well as other publicity materials.

At last, defined as the measure of all things in translation by Reiss, the ST is regarded by Vermeer as merely an “offer of information” which can be partly or wholly transmitted for the target audience, leaving its status much lower in skopostherie than in equivalence-based theories. And it is the purpose of the translation that determines what to translate, how much to translate and what strategies to employ in specific situations. For this reason, in C-E translation of company website, any translation strategy can be adopted provided it is effective in publicizing the company in the target culture and expanding its business there. The translator needs to serve as “cultural filtering”, which means making adjustments to the structure and style of the source text by addition, deletion and rewriting. In this section, different successful translation techniques applicable to company profile translation in light of skopostheorie will be explored.

3. The Skopos theory and company website translation

 

 A company website is a particular communicative message that an organization wants to deliver to a particular audience. It is essentially “a résumé” presenting an image of a particular company, aiming to “establish the credibility with the market the company serves” . Klein also argues that a company website provides insight about a company to its customers and prospects; potential employees and partners view it to evaluate whether or not it is the kind of company they’d like to work with. Generally speaking, a well-written company website contains the company’s founders, product range or service that a company offers, major stockholders, members of the board, address, telephone and fax numbers, website, and other vital information. Some website include their history and significant achievements they have made through the years. This thesis defines a company profile in a narrow sense and refers to a company introduction since introductory remarks head all the other subdirectory items and are of the most representative characteristics. The samples employed in this thesis include brochures and materials from the Internet and cover a great variety of b usiness fields such as banks, hotels, automobiles, medicine, wine, household electrical appliances, tobacco, and sports goods.

3.1 Introduction of skopos theory

The Skopos theory is an important functionalist theory of translation that was developed in Germany in the 1970s. It reflects “a general shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation” [8]235. It greatly widens the research field of translation and puts translation researches in the framework of cross-cultural communication, instead of the narrow framework of source and target texts or the transmission between two languages. The Skopos theory draws inspiration from communication theory, action theory, text linguistics and text theory, and also from movements in literary studies toward reception theories. It is regarded as the core of German functionalism.

Hans Vermeer who proposed the Skopos theory gives his own definition of translation from a unique perspective that translation is a “purposeful action”. In the Skopos theory, translation is basically a type of communication. In other words, translation is a type of human action. Since action is the process of acting, which means “intentionally(at will)bringing about or preventing a change in the world (in nature), and thus can be defined as an intentional change or transition from one state of affairs to another” 18. Based on this belief, Vermeer put forward his translation principles, including the Skopos rule ad the guiding principle, and the coherence and the fidelity rule as subordinate principles.

It requires that a good translation be:

[1] pragmatic, accounting for the situational conditions of communicative interaction and, accordingly, for the needs and expectations of the addressees of the target text and even making the receiver the most important yardstick of translational decisions;

[2] culture-oriented, giving consideration to the culture-specific forms of verbal and nonverbal behaviour involved in translation;

[3] consistent, able to show the translator’s decisions in any type or form of translation task and make the target text a functional one;

[4] practical, accounting all the forms of transcultural communication needed; 

[5] normative, displaying the translator’s particular purpose;

[6] comprehensive, the communicative effects of a target text being equivalent to those of the source text;

.

3.2 The wrong types of translation from the perspective of Skopos theory

During the information exchanging, Chinese companies have to provide effective company website profile linguistically and culturally acceptable to their target readers. Consequently, the English translation of Chinese company website plays a significant role in ensuring a successful communication with the outside world. Yet the overall situation of the C-E translation of Chinese company profiles is far from satisfactory. From the perspective of Skopostheorie, “if the purpose of a translation is to achieve a particular function for the target addressee, anything that obstructs the achievement of this purpose is a translation error” [9]74. Thus, to decide whether a piece of translation is a translation error or not is neither to see whether the translation is grammatically correct or not, nor to see whether the translation is loyal to the meaning of the source text. Instead, it should depend on whether the translation has achieved the intended purpose of the original work. As far as the C-E translation of company profiles is concerned, major problems and errors result from the ignorance of linguistic and cultural differences. The common errors in the C-E translation can be roughly classified into two categories: functional translation errors, linguistic tr anslation errors and cultural translation errors.

3.2.1 Functional translation errors

Functional inadequacies occur in four ways. They may be pragmatic translation errors, which are the result of “inadequate solutions to pragmatic translation problems such as lack of receiver orientation”. Secondly, they may be cultural translation errors, which are “due to an inadequate decision with regard to reproduction or adaptation of culture-specific conventions”. Thirdly, they may be linguistic translation errors, which are “caused by an inadequate translation when the focus is on language structures”. Fourthly, and finally, they may be text-specific translation errors, which are “related to a text-specific translation problem and, like the corresponding translation problems, can usually be evaluated from a functional or pragmatic point of view” 76 .

Function refers to the factors which make the text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients[11]126.

The claim that a variety of strategies, often moving away from the linguistic surface of the source text, are necessary to produce a functional target text gives a more grounded precision to the claims of Goldblatt and Raffel. Nord’s argument helps us to understand that these strategies are not to be considered shortcomings or inadequacies, reluctantly accepted as abstract “poetry” but never as “scholarship” – they are deliberate and intelligent forms of both creativity and fidelity. Indeed they are the inevitable, different paths that translators must follow if they wish to create new texts based on their appropriately functional readings of the source-text. (Scholars, to paraphrase Raffel, are then entitled to translations as much as poets – but because their needs are different, they each require a different sort of translation.) If these strategies of non-equivalence are to be considered “mistakes” at all then they are, in a paradoxical way, “deliberate mistakes”, intentionally undertaken in order to recreate the text in a way that deviates from the literal surface meaning of the source text so as to represent its other, deeper, features. Other errors, or “mistakes”, which are the result of our intentions being neither adequate nor appropriate, might be considered, in contrast, to be “foolish mistakes”, the product of ignorance but not of maliciousness. And ignorance can be overcome by “an adequate level of language and culture proficiency”.

3.2.2 Lingustic translation errors

Linguistic translation errors are at the basic level among the four types of errors mentioned above. They usually stem from an incompetent translator’s poor command of the target language. Unfamiliar with the target language norms and conventions, an unqualified translator would make all kinds of errors, which range from levis (spelling and choice of words), semantics (meaning the source text intends to convey) to syntax (grammatical sentences and structure). Hence the translated text cannot be fully understood by the foreign audience. For example,“拳头产品”has been translated literally as “fist product”. In Chinese,“拳头产品” indicates that the product sells well in the market and it is regarded as a brand name. The counterpart “fist” in English, however, just means the hand when closed tightly with the fingers bent into the palm, which cannot convey the original meaning. It would be better to be translated as “knockout product”, “hard-punch product”or“product with a competitive edge” [12].

Example[3]: 三十年纺织品和服装出口经验,质量第一,信誉第一,友情第一,重合同,守信用,始终如一。(ex.cn)

Original version:Thirty years’experience of textiles and garments export.Quality the best.Reputation and friendship the foremost. Always abide by contacts and credibility.

Revised version:The rendering in this example is a typical word-for-word one, let alone the grammatical mistake in the last sentence “Always abide by contacts and credibility”. The deliberate faithfulness of its sentence structure actually results in sen tence fragments in English, which are far from emotionally appealing to the English readers. Such redundant syntactic structure will surely confuse the target readers.

Example[4]: 集“中国驰名商标”、“中国名牌”、“国家免检产品”和“国家出口商品免验”等荣誉于一身的特步(中国)有限公司,位于福建省泉州市经济技术开发区。(xtep.com.cn/)

Original version:Xtep(China)co.,ltd.,honored with China's famous and popular brand, China's famous brand, products exempt from inspection and export products exempt from inspection; which locates in Quanzhou Economic and Technological Development zone. After correcting the grammatical errors in this version,an improved version could be:

Revised version:Xtep(China)Co., Ltd.,winning honors like “China’s famous and popular brand”, “China’s famous brand”, “inspection-exempt products” and “inspection-exempt products for export”, which is located in Quanzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone. 

3.2.3 Clutural translation errors

What does the word “culture” mean?As we have seen, culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex and all-pervasive. Though there has been a century of efforts to define culture by scholars from different points of view, an agreement has so far not been reached[13]. The definition of culture seems simple but complex in reality. It covers aspects of everyday life to cognitive and social structure. And it refers to communities that have different attitudes toward political and social issues, different cultural practices and references in their private lives, different social backgrounds, etc.

In 1871, in his classic book Primitive Culture, British anthropologist Edward Tylor first gave the definition of culture which is widely quoted :“culture...is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” [13]. This definition is far from complete and vague to some extent because it only stressed the spiritual part of culture, but has neglected its material basis without which culture is an impossibility.

Translation and culture are closely related to each other. Translation is a cross-cultural communication. Various scholars have elaborated on the relationship between culture and translation.

Toury holds that translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural conditions48.

In order to achieve the expected purpose of the C-E translation of company profiles, it is particularly important to know the role of culture in the C-E translation of company profiles. First of all, culture affects the selection of company profiles. In order to carter for the target readers, the initiators have to select materials that characterize the Chinese culture and are acceptable in the target cultural system. Secondly, culture affects the acceptability of translations in the target culture[18]. Because of the cultural differences, what is appreciated in one culture may not be acceptable in another culture differences, what is appreciated in on culture may not be acceptable in another culture. Thirdly, culture also affects the approaches to be adopted in the translation process. For different translation purposes, people may resort to different apporaches to solve cultural clashes.

Chinese and western cultures differ greatly in their historical development, geographical locations, customs, conventions, religious beliefs and aesthetics,which have a great impact on cross-cultural communication.According to Skopostheorie, a cultural translation error occurs when something in the translation doesn't conform to the norms and conventions in the target culture. Cultural transla tion mistakes or errors, though very covert, cause a lot of hideous barriers in the cross-cultural communication.

As has been mentioned above, what is appreciated in the Chinese culture may be unacceptable in the English culture due to the cultural differences. For example, we have always prided ourselves as“龙的传人”, which is literally translated as“descendants of the dragon”. However, the Chinese word“龙” in the Chinese culture is not equivalent to the “dragon” in the western culture. Though both of them are legendary animals, their images and connotations are quite different. In the Chinese culture, the image of “龙” has undergone a series of changes before it takes its present form. It has the combined features of a number of animals—a reptile-like animal with a scaled body and claws, which can not only crawl, but also swim and fly. It is the symbol of the Chinese nation and the Chinese national spirit. It represents power, supremacy and auspice. In feudal China, emperors were compared to dragons. But in the western legends, dragon is a huge lizard with wings, scales and a long snake-like tail. It can spit fire. Dragon in the western culture is the symbol of evil[19]. So if the phrase“以外贸企业为龙头” is translated into English as “with foreign trade firms as the dragon’s head”, the foreigners will feel awful when they read the translation. It will be acceptable when it is translated as“with foreign trade firms as the locomotive(or flagship)”.

Besides, English company profiles emphasize simplicity, individuality and substantiality, while Chinese ones stress elegance, uniformity, and authority. For this reason, the author of this present paper suggests that to realize intended commercial purpose, translators should avoid literally translating four-character phraseology into English because foreign consumers may show their doubts at the first sight of these patterns:“Who knows?” as shown in the following examples.

Example[5]: 该厂能生产大衣、西装、时装、衬衣、毛衣等不同类型服装用的上千个花色品种的纽扣,产品规格齐全,品种繁多,造型新颖。(lxbutton.com/)

Original version:The factory can produce thousands of type of buttons for coats, suits, fashions, shirts and sweaters. They have complete ranges of specification and various types and are novel in shape.

Revised version:The factory can produce various new types of buttons in thousands of different designs for coat, suits, fashions, shirts and sweaters.

It seems that the modifications in the second English version not only successfully achieve commercial effect but also makes the content more succinct. Hence, a translator should always bear in mind that cultural comparison is a “must” in the translation process. Without comparisons of the two cultural systems, successful translation would not be possible.

4. Analyses of website translation of foreign trade company in Zhejiang province

There are many famous foreign trade companies in Zhejiang province, almost every company owns its English version website profile which focus to attract foreign business partners around the world. But owing to the different levels of translators who work as the company website translation, there exists a big difference in the quality of website translation, some even cause serious problem which make foreign trade partner confused about the compani's business and even products' function. So it is very important for translators of company website to follow some principles while dealing with the translation work.

4.1 Functional translation errors

4.1.1 Problem of length

The main reason for the too long translation is the profile of the translation focus too much on faith, but neglect removing or simplifying the useless information for audience. In accordance with the “Skopos rule”, the purpose of translation decides the behaviour of translation work. The translators should add, adjust or predigest the original work depending on the purpose of the translation.some of the original target information is out of communicative value which will make the translation empty, trash-talking and even affecting the information transforming.

Example [6]: 进入新世纪后,娃哈哈已拥有了雄厚的产品自主研发能力和技术创新能力,在雄厚的资金保障下,通过引进国际最先进的生产设备技术,进行消化、吸收、再创新,使公司拥有强大的核心竞争能力。同时,通过自主开发营养快线等系列创新产品,广开销路,实现科学发展,行业龙头地位日益稳固。目前,娃哈哈正在不断扩大投资规模,不断自主创新,向着世界500强企业的目标阔步前进!(划线部分为错误点)(wahaha.com.cn/aboutus/history/)

    Original version: The third time milestone development: entering the new era, Wahaha cultivated the dependent R&D ability and the technology innovation ability. Secured by abundant capital, we adopted the international advanced equipment technology with absorption and d igestion, making sure that Wahaha keeps the core competitive edge. We also developed the popular products like Nutrition Express to sustain the scientific development, stabilizing our leading position. Currently, Wahaha keeps further investment and constant innovation, aiming for becoming the world Top 500 enterprises.

We can find that some information in the Chinese version is useless and redundant,“消化、吸收、再创新”,“自主研发能力和技术创新能力”they all means innovation.so we can simplify the version into:

Revised version: Entering the new era, Wahaha cultivated the ability of innovation and R&D with abundant capital, we adopted the international advanced equipment with renew ability, making Wahaha keep the core competitive edge. At the same time, we have developed the popular products like Nutrition Express to sustain the scientific development, stabilize our leading position. Currently, Whaha keeps investment and innovation for becoming the world top 500 enterprises。

Example [7]: 东方机械位于风景秀丽、物产丰富、经济发达、文化繁荣,素有江南“鱼米、皮革之乡”美称的钱塘江畔。(hua-jia .com/s1.htm)

Original version: Our factory is located in Dingqiao Town by the Qiantang River where is famed as"The Home of fish,Rice and Leather",with beautiful scenery,rich products,flourishing economy and prosperous culture.

Revised version: “...located at Dingqiao Town by the Qingtang river, our company specialized in the production of ... ”(we can just delete the underlined part)

Example [8]: 2003年初,公司为满足国内市场对专用车的需要,及时调整产品结构并成立的专用车公司,在做稳、做强客车的同时,投巨资实施专用车项目,精心打造有洛阳宇通特色的专用车产品,本着“低端切人、高端占领”的原则,经过精心筹备,四大系列产品即混凝土搅拌车系列、散装水泥车系列、加油车系列、洒水车系列一经投放市场,便以其全新的设计、优美的造型、细腻的工艺赢得了市场的青睐。(lyyt.com/t9/index.asp)

Original version: In the early of 2003, in order to meet the demands for special-purpose car in domestic market, we adjusted our product's structure and set up a new department dealing with special purpose car. While steadying and strengthening the production of passenger car, we invest large amounts of money in special-purpose car to carefully make this kind of products with vivid Luoyang Yutong characteristics. With the principle of cutting in from the low end and taking possession at the high end, our four series of products were put into market in April of 2003 after careful preparation. They are dowser series, water cart series, bulk cement vehicle series and concrete-mixing vehicle series. The products win for their new designation, exquisite molding and technique.

Revised version: In addition to its wonderful performance in the sector of passenger cars, Luoyang Yutong Automobile co., Ltd. Moved forward with an aggressive campaign to stay at the forefront of transportation. In the early of 2003, we set up a new sector to manufacture special-purpose vehicles including fuel trucks, spraying cars, bulk cement trucks and concrete-mixing trucks which are tailored to the needs of Chinese market. They gained excellent reputation for their original design and state-of-the-art technics among clients as soon as they were put into market in April of the same years.

4.1.2 Problem rooted from different thought pattern

In the functionalist perspective, the purpose of a translation is to achieve a particular function for the target address, and anything that prevents the achievement of this purpose in considered as a translation error. This means that a particular expression or utterance is not inadequate in itself; it only becomes inadequate with regard to the communicative function it was expected to achieve. Furthermore, Nord classifies the translation errors into four categories: pragmatic, cultural, linguistic and text-specific ones[9]. Study of the small corpus shows those translation errors in the translated corporate website are mainly linguistic and cultural. In the following parts, the author is to demonstrate the problems common to nearly all the sample texts, with suggested solutions thereafter.

Example [9]: 引进大量的科技管理人才,成立“真爱集团人才联谊会” 形成“重知识,重人才” 的良好气氛。(truelovegroup.com/english/about/about.asp)

Original version: To form well atmosphere “esteem acknowledge, esteem intellect”, truelove employed a mess of technology and management persons and set up “truelove group talent sociality”.

Revised version: To form well atmosphere “respect knowledge and talents”, Truelove employed talents and set up “Truelove talents Union”.

Example  [10]:

(1)医德医风

Medical ethics

(2)全体员工精诚团结,上下一心

All the staffs unite absolute sincerity

(3)上有上策,下有下策,有令不行,有禁不止。

Disobey orders and defy prohibition.

In these translations repetitions have been talked carefully.The Word “ethics” contains the meaning of both“德”and“风”. The Chinese“精诚团结”and“上下一心” which have the same meaning are translated into “unite in absolute sincerity.” As with these, the third English sentence fully renders the Chinese version whose second part means the same as the first one.

Let's quote example (2) as another example of this strategy. Taking a look at the underlined parts, we find the Chinese phrase“进入饭店” has not been translated. The English version “Hong Kong Peninsula Hotel Management Group introduced us ...” is clear and sufficient to express the meaning of “进入饭店,带来…”. If we translate it in the word-for-word way “as entered the hotel and brought...”, the TT readers in English cultures will be confused. Thus, leaving out tautological words is one of the communicative methods in translating to realize the purpose of the TT. More specifically, this translation is a compliance with coherence rule rather than the fidelity rule.

4.2 Linguistic translation errors

A linguistic translation error is at the most basic level among the types of errors mentioned above. They usually stem from an incompetent translator's poor command of the language. Unfamiliar with the language norms and conventions, an unqualified translator would make all kinds of mistakes, which range from lexis (spelling and choice of words), syntax (grammatical sentence and structure) and semantics (meaning that the source text intends to convey).

4.2.1 Spelling errors

Example [11]: 本公司始终坚持以“质量为本,科技创新,优质服务,环保产品”为发展宗旨。(chinacgic.com/company.asp)

Original version: Our company has all along been adhering to such a development philosophy: quality basis, technological innovation, high-quality service and environment-friendly products.

Revised version:our company has all along been adhering to such a developing idea: quality basis, technological innovation, high-quality service and environment-friendly products.

Example [12]:“成功电子” 以拥有您的支持而自豪,并有信心通过我们不断的努力使您以使用“成功电子” 产品而骄傲。(chinacgic.com/)

Original version: Success Electronics is proud for having your support and convinced that our constant efforts can make you proud of using our products.

Revised verion: Success Electronic is proud for having your support and it convince that our constant efforts can make you proud of using our products.

4.2.2 Improper use of punctuation

Example[13]: 公司自创办以来,不断扩大规模,更新产品的种类。欢迎各中外客商前来共创商机! (rx-china.com/)

Original version: The company spread dimensions at once. sincerely welcomes its friends to have business negotiation, cooperate with them and jointly make great achievement.

Revised version: Since the establishment of our company we have always been expanding our industrial scale and adding new ranges to our production line. Now we warmly welcome our customers, both at home and abroad, to come together and enjoy better business opportunities!

Example [14]: 本公司经营的产品广泛用于通讯设备、家用电器、仪器仪表、数码产品行业、电子玩具以及工业自动化设备等各种领域, 在电子行业有很高的声誉。(zszyss.com/)

Original version: The product of company’s operation is used in the various fields such as communication equipment, electric home appliances, instrument appearance, digital product profession, electronictoy as well as industrial automatic equipment extensively, we have very high reputation on electronic profession.

Revised version: The products we deal in are widely used in such areas as communication, household electrical appliances, instruments and meters, digital products, electric toys and industrial automatic equipment. Our company enjoys a high reputation in the line of electronic.

4.2.3 Incorrect word translation

Example [15]: 本公司近年致力弘扬、推广中华优秀传统文化和与之相结合的高新科技。2002年起被中央有关部门指定为外交部国礼系列图书国内外主要发行单位之一。(zylp.com/)

Original version: This company recent years devoted to bring honor to , to promote the China outstanding traditional culture and high speed science which unified with it. In 2002 is assigned by the central department concerned one of for country cash as a present book domestic and foreign main release units .

Revised version: We have been carrying forward and popularizing traditional Chinese culture combined with newly developed high-tech. In 2002, our company was appointed to be one of the authorized publishers of series of golden books as official gifts for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Example [16]: 百果园占地面积20 亩,花园式布局,生产车间4800m²,设有原料、粗加工、成品、包装、冷藏、锅炉等生产车间。(baiguoyuan.com.cn/)

Original version: Baiguoyuan is like a garden it cone ns an area of zomu, with 3400 sguan meters work shop, including material storage workshop , naw processing workshop, finshed produet workshop, packing workshop, cold stonage workshop and boilen workshop.

Revised version: Baiguoyuan, a well laid out garden-like enterprise, covers an area of 20 mu, and owns a production department of 4800 square meters including workshops handling materials, rough processing, finished goods, packing, refrigerating and a boiler room.

4.2.4 Illogical arrangement

Illogical arrangement is primarily coordinated at the incorrectly translation of an individual expression or sentence's elements which cause incoherent and misunderstanding.

Example [17]:(本单位)成立于1988年,是经国家建设部批准,专业从事地基与基础工程施工的壹级企业。(richelevator.com/hz/)

Original version:We are the stair enterp rise professioned on construction of groundwork and base engineering approved by national construction department founded in 1988.

Revised version: Our company, with the approval of Ministry of Construction, was established in 1988 and we are now a first grade enterprise specializing in the construction of groundwork and foundational engineering.

Example [18]: 公司非常重视对员工队伍素质的培训工作,专门成立了人力资源部,对员工进行操作技术、专业技能、安全生产、市场意识、产品质量等方面的培训。(chinacgic.com/)

Original version: The company emphasize on training for the staff, specialize to establish HR department, train manipulating technique, specialty skill, safe producing, market apperceiving, product quality and the other side training.

Revised version:We put emphasis on training our working staff and specially set up a human resources department for the purpose of guiding our staff members to master new operating techniques, professional skills, safety in production, marketing strategies and quality control.

4.3 Cultural translation errors 

When preparing an English version of the corporate profile, the Chinese companies tend to translate literally the existing Chinese language, regardless of the fact that different addressees require an adjustment of the relationship between the explicit and implicit information in the target text and that the target cultural conventions should be given priority.

Example[19]: 公司于2000年顺利通过ISO9001: 2000版国际质量体系认证,形成了一套完整的质量保障体系,2002年11月被中国轻工业质量认证中心授予 “环保陶瓷”称号。(.cn/)

Original version:the company passed ISO9001:2000 International Quality System Certification in 2000, and has established a complete quality assurance system. It was awarded as “Environmental friendly ceramics”.

  In this short paragraph, the company exhibits four honorary titles: ISO9001:2000版国际质量体系认证,“环保陶瓷” without further explaining what the awards are about, what requirements should be met to win each and how this company is qualified to receive the glories. For people who are familiar with the awarding system, this information is able to serve as a strong support for the qualification of company. However, the westerners are probably not so moved by these titles. Questions may haunt the readers, such as “what is the evaluation standard of the award?” “how often is the award granted?” “how many enterprises can get award in each season?” in other words, only when the information becomes convincing enough can the foreigners acknowledge the qualification of the company.

5.Conclusion

It should have been a progress for the development of the Chinese enterprises since the bilingual corporate websites open a new channel for them to present themselves to the world; however, in the analysis of the translated company introductions, the author observes quite a number of errors and problems prevailing the target text, which can hardly help achieve the function of the source text, only to ruin the image of the company. After all, a company with a poor English introduction can hardly convince the potential customers of the top-quality claim of the product and service therein. Delving into the translated corporate profiles, the author finds out that as far as the translation of the Chinese corporate profiles is concerned, Chinese companies still have a long way to go.

In this light, the paper analyses the language, cultural-specific terms and discourse of the translated corporate website translation, locates common errors and proposes some methods for better communication with the international audience.

However, as nearly all the cooperate profiles are translated literally in the process, even if the linguistic and cultural errors are corrected the target texts still appear awkward in the whole text and fail to become fluent English. In other words, any corrections made in the English sentences do not solve the problem and cannot ensure a functionally satisfactory reaction from the audience.

Guo Jianzhong says the translation of pragmatic texts is an art of re-expression based on writing techniques. It holds true to the company introduction, which is tattooed to translate according to the source text’s diction and structure. What the translators need to do is to adapt to or rewrite the source text before translating. Though the English may be not literally correspondent with the original source text, the meaning of the content and stylistic features retain. As a result, the communication carries out successfully and the function is fulfilled.

 

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Yang Xue, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Zhang Lan, Zhu Ming, Wu Xiaoyun, and many others.

My greatest personal debt is to my parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

 

References

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[2] 何森梅. 从目的论中看中文企业网站的英译策略 [J].黎明职业大学学报, 2008(1).

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[4] Nord, C. Translating as a Purposeful activity [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[5] 梁丁强. 目的论与企业简介的翻译原则及策略-以中国企业的英文简介为例 [D]. 扬州大学英语系研究生论文, 2008.

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[8] Vermeer, H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [M]. New York: Gardner Press 2000: 221-232.

[9] Nord, C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

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[12] 张丽玲. 从目的论讨论中英广告翻译中的差异 [D]. 暨南大学硕士学位论文 2007.

[13] 王娜. 从功能翻译理论看中国企业简介的翻译 [D]. 首都师范大学硕士学位论文 2006.

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[15] Toury,G. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond [M]. Shnahgai:Shnahgai  Foreign Language  Education Press,2001.

[16] Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories [M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[17] Mary, Snell-Hornby. Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press, 2004.

[18] 谭载喜. 新编奈达论翻译 [M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1999.

[19] 崔胜湘. 根据目的进行翻译 [D]. 国防科学技术大学 硕士学位论文, 2004.

 

诚 信 承 诺

我谨在此承诺:本人所写的毕业论文《外贸公司网站英译研究之目的论视角》均系本人独立完成,没有抄袭行为,凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料,均作了注释,若有不实,后果由本人承担。

外文毕业论文例10

当前我国贸易摩擦高发的原因是多方面的,既有外部国际经济贸易环境因素,也有内部经济结构和体制因素。从外部经济环境变化来看,主要有以下四个方面的原因:

一是世界经济发展不平衡和贸易保护主义抬头加剧了贸易摩擦。1995年以前,有反倾销法的国家或经济体只有19个,现在则有120多个。据WTO统计,1995年初至2005年底11年期间,41个WTO成员通报了2840件反倾销调查案件,38个WTO成员通报了1804件反倾销措施决定,全球共有98个贸易体遭受反倾销投诉。世界主要贸易伙伴的全球贸易摩擦中,针对我国的贸易摩擦又尤为突出。从1995年到2005年,全球反倾销立案中,美国366件,对华61件;欧盟327件,对华60件;加拿大134件,对华17件;印度425件,对华86件。全球反倾销措施中,美国234件,对华50件;欧盟219件,对华41件;加拿大84件,对华11件;印度316件,对华66件。

二是中国经济的关联影响。随着我国贸易规模扩大和在国际经济中影响力的增强,一些国家对中国的疑虑加重。国际上出现了形形的“中国”,从最早的“军事”、“安全”到现在的“贸易”、“能源”、“科技”、“商品”,林林总总,不一而足。这些论调,为国外对我采取贸易保护主义措施提供了舆论支持,一定程度上助长了贸易摩擦案件的增多。

三是国外对我国市场经济认识的偏差导致了贸易摩擦有增无减。在反倾销调查中,仍有许多国家视我国为“非市场经济体”继续采取“替代国”等歧视性办法,不仅大大增加了WTO成员确定自中国进口的产品构成倾销的可能性,而且为对中国出口产品滥用反倾销提供了便利,是我国成为全球反倾销第一目标国的重要制度性原因。

从国内经济环境来看,主要有以下几个方面的原因:

1、我国产业与外部竞争加剧了利益矛盾。我国出口产品中,除去一些重要的资源性产品外,绝大多数产品都是可替代性很强的竞争性产品。这些产品附加值低,以价格竞争为主,给贸易伙伴形成了直接的压力。一方面,我主要出口产品所属产业多是发达国家的夕阳产业,这些产业在发达国家经营困难,有较强的寻求保护的主观愿望,也多是发达国家重点保护产业;另一方面,这些产业又多是发展中国家目前的主要支柱产业,我出口产品在这些国家本国和其主要出口市场都存在激烈竞争。由此可见,由于我国产业贸易结构多元化和不断升级的趋势,我与发达国家和发展中国家之间在互利互补合作的同时,相互竞争和利益冲突也在增加。

2、外贸顺差扩大给贸易摩擦提供了借口。虽然多年来我国外贸顺差绝对水平和相对水平都较低,但结构性顺差比较突出,对美、欧和很多发展中国家都存在持续顺差,特别是对美、欧顺差不断扩大。根据中方统计,从2001年到2005年,我国对美国的贸易顺差由281亿美元增加到1142亿美元,对欧盟的贸易顺差由51.8亿美元增加到701亿美元。按照美国政府的说法,从2000年起,我国取代日本成为美国最大的贸易逆差来源国。

3、我产品市场集中和出口激增给对方制造贸易摩擦授以把柄。2005年,我国大葱占日本进口总量的99.2%;我国鞋类产品在美国、欧盟、日本的市场占有率分别高达60%、20%和67%;我国家具在欧盟进口市场上的份额由1999年的6%猛增至2005年的50%。我一些产品出口增速也非常高。2005年我国对欧盟的虾制品出口,数量和金额分别比上年增长1886.3倍和1938倍;鳗鱼出口增长了1000倍以上;苹果汁出口增长近200倍。对美国的鸡肉制品出口,数量和金额分别比上年增长345.7倍和266.6倍。这些出口激增、市场较为集中的产品,往往是发生贸易摩擦的主要对象。

4、我国生产企业劳动、安全、资源、环保等方面的缺失容易引起相关纠纷。我国平均工资是主要发达国家的1/3左右,低于多数发展中国家。广东省外来民工长期平均工资只有500-600元。此外,土地、水电、环境、安全生产成本也相当低廉,或根本没有计算成本。由于有关劳动环保等法律法规落实不到位,造成不同地区企业的社会成本差异,也为出口低价竞销提供了可能。如,2005年我国出口到欧盟的鞋单价为2.71美元/双,与欧洲国家鞋价相差数倍;出口到欧洲的家具价格比同类产品低50%甚至更多。今年以来,我国每吨钢材出口价格低于国际钢价180美元到300美元。国际上已有许多国家试图对我国钢材产品启动反倾销调查。

5、一些国家借我国经济体制不完善大做文章。近年来,在人民币汇率问题上,美国、日本等无端指责中国“操纵汇率”,动辄以贸易制裁来威胁;在知识产权问题上,美国不断施压,要求中国提高知识产权保护标准;在市场经济地位问题上,美、欧等国作难中国,不肯承认中国为市场经济国家,美国还要求中国成为所谓负责任的“参与者”。这些要求都超出了中国作为发展中经济体应有的承受力。

如何看待我国的贸易摩擦

(一)我国贸易摩擦多发期将持续较长时间,我们必须有长期面对的准备

随着中国经济和贸易规模的扩大,将对世界经济和贸易格局继续产生深远的影响,我国贸易摩擦高发的根本性因素将在较长时期内存在。一是世界经济失衡的状态将长期存在,国际贸易保护主义的主要矛头仍将指向中国。二是一些国家出于保护国内特殊利益集团的需要,仍然会借贸易问题对中国挑起是非。三是我国承接国际产业转移的贸易格局将继续使贸易顺差常态化。四是我国经济贸易增长方式的根本转变和向消费需求为主导的转型,需要一个较长期的过程。五是我国建立完善的经济体制也是一个长期任务。这些因素决定了我国在参与全球经济合作与竞争中,将有较长时期的磨合期。在此过程中,我国的贸易摩擦只会多,而不会少;只会更加复杂多样,而不会简单化。

(二)既要重视,又要以平常心对待贸易摩擦

首先,要高度重视贸易摩擦的应对。在进一步参与经济全球化和加强对外经贸合作过程中,将妥善处理经济纠纷和贸易摩擦作为我国对外经济工作的一项重要任务。其次,要以平常心对待贸易摩擦。我们要看到当今世界贸易摩擦的长期性、普遍性,世界各国都概莫能外。我们应顺其自然,正确应对。既不能漠然视之,头痛医头、脚痛医脚;也不能盲目应付,必须确保政策自主性。再次,我们要看到并充分发挥自身的优势,综合应对贸易摩擦。中国作为一个成长性的市场,对世界经济贸易的贡献日益扩大,通过双向投资和贸易,我国与世界各国已经建立了广泛的利益共享机制,国外对中国经济的依赖不断增大。最后,树立积极主动的应对观,注重从源头上防范和缓解贸易摩擦。对内重在治本,切实转变经济和外贸增长方式,扩大内需,规范经营秩序,力争从源头上减少贸易摩擦;对外要千方百计寻找与贸易伙伴的利益共同点和交汇点,注重沟通,加强交涉,积极解决贸易摩擦。总之,我们的基本原则应该是“理性分析、平常心对待,标本兼治、全方位应对”。

我国如何应对愈演愈烈的贸易摩擦

(一)落实科学发展观,构建和谐经贸关系

要更好地统筹国内发展和对外开放,促进内需与外需的的平衡发展,立足国内市场,坚持扩大内需的长期方针,以便逐步从源头上减少和缓解对外矛盾和争端,提高我们解决对外摩擦和抵御风险的能力。同时,我们必须树立全球战略意识,坚持实行平衡有序发展;坚持把既符合本国利益、又能促进共同发展,作为处理与各国经贸关系的基本出发点;坚持全面发展与世界各国、各地区的经贸合作,实现平等、互利、互惠,全面构建和谐经贸关系。

(二)完善对外经济政策,推动进、出口,引进来与走出去的平衡协调发展

在发展对外经济和制定相关政策时,要切实考虑国际因素,注意把握中国经济发展给外部世界带来的影响。以国际收支和进出口基本平衡作为目标,不追求大额顺差,不断扩大进口,为全球贸易持续增长做出贡献。要在坚持提高引进来水平的同时,大力推进“走出去”战略的实施。稳步扩大对外直接投资、对外承包工程、对外劳务合作、进行境外资源合作开发等,加强互利合作,建立利益共享机制,缓解贸易摩擦。抓住新一轮国际产业转移的有利时机,充分利用外商的技术、专利、销售网络和品牌,在利益共享的基础上以返销的形式进入其国内市场,使我国企业的出口行为转变为外商所在国具有国际合作性质的国内行为,避免贸易摩擦。

(三)调整产业结构,增强核心竞争力

在处理贸易摩擦过程中,要实现从“末端治理”向“源头和过程治理”并重的思路转变,力争从源头上减少贸易摩擦。针对目前产业结构不合理,产业集中化程度低的现状,企业应该通过整合上下游资源打通产业链,调整产业结构。不断完善和提高产品的各项技术、环保、卫生、安全等标准,积极研究、追踪和采用国际标准,提高企业进入门槛,提高产品质量和科技含量,增加低消耗、无污染、高附加值产品生产,促进出口企业努力增强技术创新和培育自主品牌的能力,扩大具有自主知识产权的产品出口。积极运用商标、包装、公关、广告等多种非价格竞争手段,提高我国产品的国际竞争力。引导企业转变出口增长方式,改变急风暴雨式的出口行为,走差异化竞争道路,平稳有序开拓国际市场。

(四)改善经济体制,建立公平、开放的市场竞争体制

在参与全球经济竞争与合作过程中,加快制度调整与创新,推进国内市场开放,消除国内市场存在的区域壁垒和行业垄断。真正树立开放的观念和意识,扩大开放领域,推进贸易自由化、便利化,提高政策的透明度,建立必要的进口促进体系和政策手段,缓解外部压力和矛盾。在全面考虑内外部形势基础上及时主动推进金融自由化改革和汇率机制市场化、弹性化,缓解贸易失衡和国际收支失衡。加强知识产权制度建设,维护公平竞争的环境。

(五)推动各方协作,共建良好环境

外文毕业论文例11

按照李嘉图的比较利益论,一国应该发展自己的比较优势产业,也就是相对机会成本较小的产品,然后和他国贸易,这样贸易双方都会获益。按照李嘉图的理论,我国应该是发展劳动密集型产业。新古典的赫克歇尔—俄林要素禀赋理论认为,一国应该生产相对要素密集的产品,按照这一理论我国也应该大力发展劳动力要素密集的产业。而实际的情况也是如此,我国出口的商品大都是劳动密集的低附加值产品,一般加工工业的过度发展在我国表现非常明显,这是市场作用的结果。

普雷维什—辛格的贸易条件恶化论又指出,由于发展中国家的劳动密集型初级产品需求弹性较小,而发达国家高新技术产品需求弹性较大,随着人们生活水平的提高,对于初级产品的需求缩减,初级产品价格下降加快,也就是发展中国家的贸易条件会不断恶化。这种情况下,如果我国按照比较优势理论继续发展劳动密集型产业,必然会使我国经济陷入“比较优势陷阱”,贸易条件不断恶化,最终导致“贫困恶性循环”,不利于我国经济长期发展。如果任由市场调节,我国的劳动密集型加工工业会过度发展,导致落入“陷阱”之中。

那么,贸易摩擦对于我国产业结构升级有着什么样的作用呢?总的来看,我国受贸易摩擦影响的出口商品主要是出口量大的劳动密集型商品,贸易摩擦使得这些产品的出口减少,国内相关的产业规模就会缩减,因此而退出的资源和资金就会流入更高层次的产业,从而推动我国产业结构升级。而一些特殊的贸易摩擦,如技术性贸易壁垒等技术性措施,直接要求的就是技术水平的提高,对于提升产业结构的作用更加明显。从这里的分析我们可以看到,贸易摩擦对于我国这种特殊国情的国家来说,可以起到一种积极的指引作用,市场从某种意义上来看是失灵了,但贸易摩擦正好起到了纠正失灵的作用。所以说,贸易摩擦的产业结构提升作用对我国经济发展产生了显而易见的积极效应。

贸易摩擦有利于培养我国的竞争优势产业

我们可以从以下几个方面来分析贸易摩擦对于我国竞争优势产业培养的作用。首先,贸易摩擦有利于优胜劣汰。淘汰一些身单力薄、竞争力微弱的小企业,有利于资源的优化配置,这些企业的退出对整个社会来说是一个帕雷托改进。其次,贸易摩擦有利于规模经济的形成。小企业破产的同时,也为一些实力雄厚的大企业腾出了市场和空间,在规模经济和学习曲线效应的作用下,大企业规模越来越大,竞争力越来越强。虽然可能导致的垄断并不利于市场机制的完善和经济增长,但一定程度的垄断和大企业竞争力的增强却可以与国外企业竞争与抗衡,争夺更多的国外市场,有利于本国经济的短期增长和长期发展。再次,贸易摩擦会加剧国内相关企业之间的竞争,而企业理论告诉我们,竞争的引入会降低企业生产的X非效率,也就是提高企业生产的效率,这会更加促进企业的发展和壮大,加快大企业的诞生。

关于竞争优势产业的培养,我们也要认识到比较优势向竞争优势的转化过程及它们之间的关系。所谓比较优势是李嘉图提出的概念,也就是前面所提到的比较优势理论揭示的思想,它是从资源禀赋及相对生产率角度出发的优势。而竞争优势根源于波特的“国际竞争优势”理论,它指出竞争优势有微观层面、中观层面及宏观层面三个方面的优势划分,宏观层面的技术水平、需求状况、政府作用、相关及支持产业等四大要素构成了“钻石理论”的四个角,也就是国家竞争力优势的决定要素。从该理论出发可以看出,竞争优势更多关注的是技术水平的高低,也就是说,通过提高技术水平,以技术优势取得市场上的竞争力,形成竞争优势。那么,贸易摩擦又是如何诱使比较优势产业顺利转变成竞争优势产业呢?上面的分析已经指出,贸易摩擦可以淘汰小企业而发展大企业,规模巨大的企业有更雄厚的资金实力,它们可以应国际市场以及竞争的需要提高技术水平,并取得国际范围内的绝对竞争力,也就形成了我国的竞争优势产业。

推动我国对外直接投资的发展

据商务部统计,2005年我国非金融类对外直接投资69.2亿美元,较上年同期增长25.8%。其中,股本投资40.7亿美元,占58.8%,比上年同期增长53.6%;利润再投资28.5亿美元(利润再投资为预估数,以2004年年报数据为基础数据估算),占41.2%,与上年持平。2005年,经商务部核准和备案设立的境外中资企业共计1067家,中方协议投资额69.54亿美元,同比增长87.3%。我们将这个数据与我国利用外资的状况进行对比,可以看出我国企业对外投资发展缓慢,有待于进一步“走出去”。

那么,贸易摩擦又是怎样推动我国对外直接投资的发展呢?实际上这是一个逼出来的效应,我们可以将其称为“逼迫效应”。也就是说,贸易摩擦阻止了有关企业的商品出口,使其市场缩小,商品价值无法实现,这时企业为了走出困境,只有想方设法解除摩擦,或者绕过国外商品出口的限制,也就是通过对外直接投资来实现。于是在贸易摩擦的压力下,企业对外直接投资增加,获利空间扩大,也有助于解决我国的贸易摩擦问题。在我国,这样的事例有不少,如海尔为了应对技术性贸易壁垒而选择的国际化发展道路,TCL为了抵制国外彩电反倾销而进行海外直接投资等等。贸易摩擦成为加速我国企业国际化的重要动因。

有利于实现我国贸易地理方向的多元化

总体来看,我国虽然有着巨大的对外贸易量和贸易顺差,但对外贸易地理方向单一,贸易顺差也主要集中于几个贸易伙伴国。从下表中可以看出,从2001年—2005年,我国大陆对香港地区和美国的贸易顺差额都大于总的顺差额。从中我们可以看出,我国贸易出口的地理方向还比较单一,这就使得出口风险较大,一旦与其中的一个贸易伙伴发生贸易摩擦,就会使我们损失惨重。

贸易摩擦的频繁发生在一定程度上促使我国对外贸易地理方向实现多元化。首先,贸易摩擦使我们看到了对个别贸易伙伴的过分依赖存在很大的风险,这就促使企业和国家认识到该问题的严重性,从而致力于开拓其他国家的市场;其次,贸易摩擦阻碍了某产品的出口,这时出口商也会想方设法寻找其他国家的市场,以减少自己的损失。而一旦市场开拓成功,我国的贸易地理方向就会不断实现多元化,有利于我国出口贸易的健康发展。

提升我国对外贸易质量,纠正贸易失衡状况

改革开放以来,我国对外贸易得到了迅猛的发展,尤其是上世纪90年代以及本世纪初的这几年,发展势不可挡,我国成为了全球第二贸易大国。但同时也要看到,我们只是一个贸易大国,离贸易强国还有很远的距离。我们的出口贸易基本还停留在数量扩张型阶段,只是在近几年,提高质量的呼声才越来越响,也引起了各方的高度重视。从1995年到2005年,我国加工贸易的出口额占了总出口额的一半以上。我们知道,加工贸易一般都是劳动力密集型产品的加工,它的商品附加值和利润都非常的微薄,也就是贸易获利较少,同时也不利于我国产业结构的提升和经济的持续增长。同时我们也能看到,我国对外贸易长期以来存在失衡的局面,贸易顺差巨大,而这些顺差中,加工贸易的顺差几乎都超过了总的顺差额。也就是说,我国的加工贸易顺差是总贸易顺差的重要组成部分。

如何改变种状况,提高我国对外贸易质量呢?贸易摩擦可起到一定的作用。从近年的贸易摩擦领域来看,主要集中在出口量大的劳动密集行业,如纺织品、机电产品等。这些领域的贸易摩擦直接减少了该产品的贸易量,可以在一定程度上纠正贸易失衡,同时抑制了我国加工贸易的过度发展,可以留出更多的资金发展其他产业,提升产业结构,培养竞争优势,从而逐步达到和实现提高我国对外贸易质量的目的。

应对贸易摩擦应有的态度和思路

从以上分析中我们清楚地看到,贸易摩擦并不是“洪水猛兽”,一定的情况下,它还会成为我国经济增长的激励因素。因此,我们可以得出看待和处理贸易摩擦问题的清晰思路。